A "mill" is simply a factory in which products are manufactured, but a "factory" (in its modern sense) is not necessarily a mill. It may be simply a plant where finished products are produced from subassemblies,such as an automotive assembly plant. However, the traditional definition of a mill, even in the modern dictionaries, is a "building with machinery for grinding grain into flour or meal." These were the earliest mills, and held this definition for many centuries, until facilities for sawing wood, producing textile products, etc., began to be referred to as mills, also. John Lovett

As far s we know no plans exist of any mills. Every site location was different and most mills building followed the regional building styles. Size and machinery were dictated by the communities they served. We would suggest contacting your local historical association for ideas and info, perhaps they may have info about your particular mill site. Also may we suggest you look into visiting other mills in your region (of similar time period if possible) still standing. This will give you a wealth of info as to construction ect. Regional mill lists are available through SPOOM. Good Luck.

Mr. Lunt, Though I am not familiar with the species of wood used to construct waterwheels in Scotland, In the U.S. white oak was the traditional (but not the only) material used for waterwheel construction due to its strength and resistance to decay. If you can find a hardwood of suitable quality with similar properties to White oak, it may be what you are looking for. The 4”x2” arm section seems a bit undersized to me but if you are rebuilding or using an existing wheel as a pattern, it maybe okay. 1” Thick material for the buckets should be adequate for the width of the wheel. Your e-mail did not mention the soling of the wheel that form the bottom of the buckets and whether they are to be wood or steel, but 1” to 1¼” is suitable. Though a waterwheel isn’t the most efficient means for generating electricity, it is possible. For power generation with your waterwheel, you will need a considerable step up in speed. With gearing you might consider using a cast sectional ring gear mounted to the waterwheel driving a small pinion and then transitioning to pulley drives once inside the mill. However the same step up in speed can be accomplished with pulleys alone, it all depends on your budget and available space. It may serve you best to contact firms specializing in small scale hydroelectric production in Scotland, they could possibly point you towards other existing waterwheel powered arrangements in the U.K. where you can learn from the successes and mistakes of others. Hope this is of some help......Ben

Hello, Matt, The Fitz Water Wheel Company ordinarily designed the tops of their wheels to be 2.5 feet below the maximum head of water available, so in your case the top of the dam should be around 23.5 feet above the tailrace below the wheel. If you are designing a wooden flume, make the width a little less than the width of the wheel, say no more than three feet, and position the wheel gate as close to the discharge over the wheel as convenient. The top of the flume should be at about the level of water in your millpond, although it would not normally be filled to that depth. The bottom should be no more than 3 or 4 inches above the top of the wheel. Also, place the point of discharge at just about the top dead center of the wheel (Fitz usually set it back a little, but I would recommend the center point). Just make sure the wheel clears it all the way around. You will find that only about a foot of water in the flume will be sufficient to power your wheel in most situations. The 20-inch pipe you refer to was more than adequate to deliver the water needed. If possible, use 1.5-inch tongue and groove lumber for the bottom and sides of the flume. This will diminish the leaking. It will leak worse until the water swells it. Most people now use treated lumber, but this is not recommended since it may leach chemicals into the stream. Otherwise, use a wood that holds up well when wet, such as white oak or hemlock. Don't coat it with any chemicals. Reinforce the sides of the flume with upright and cross-braced 2x4s about every 4 to 6 feet. It is usually wise to set the whole flume on I beams. You can cantilever the end over the water wheel if it has these heavy supports underneath, or support it with posts on either side of the wheel. It is very wise to design a spillway hole in the flume above the wheel gate, with its own plug that can be accessed and pulled out in a hurry to dump the water away from the mill in case the wheel gate fails or a flood overflows the head gate at the dam and fills up the flume. Otherwise, you take the risk of the water wheel running away and possibly disintegrating. Hope all this helps. Best of luck, John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

Mr. Keim, Thank you for your inquiry. There are many factors you will need to address at this stage of your restoration. One major factor you will need to consider is if you are going to actually have a functioning Mill or a static display, and if the Mill is to be made operable, how you are going to go about powering the Mill. In the case of a Watermill you will of course need water. As you are in the process of acquiring land, it would be ideal to acquire the land that will get you to your historical watersource if at all possible. If you are able to acquire the land along the headrace to the watersource, you next need to take into account the dam, if it is still intact or in need of repair and if you will be able to reuse, repair or reconstruct the dam. If you are not able to acquire direct access from your watersource via a headrace. You can still power your Mill by water via pump or recirculating watersystems. There are several mills successfully using these systems to demonstrate their Mills. There are many different ways to approach such a system, and all systems currently in use vary slightly. If you require such a system, it will need to be designed to suit your needs and water requirements for the machinery you will be powering. The restoration of a Mill to operable condition is a fairly involved and detailed process, the best advice I could give you is to contact one of the Mill Restoration consultants, architect or Millwrights who have previous Mill restoration experience to guide you step by step through the process. To find the consultant right for you, you can look through the pages of the OMN or visit several existing, operable Mills and ask for their advice. I hope this is of some help................................................................Ben

I'm assuming the question here is where to find money for restoration/renovation. They can maintain the property in their ownership and establish a non-profit organization (such as "Friends of the Mill") to seek grant money. This is not an easy process due to IRS requirements, but is necessary in almost all cases when seeking grant dollars. I would recommend applying first to Ressler Mill Foundation (www.resslermill.com) since they are in Pennsylvania. This is basically the way we operate, except we've never had any grants (except one tiny one from SPOOM years ago). Hope this helps, John

Concerning cleaning old machinery. In my experience,the best thing is simply warm water and a mild detergent, rubbed gently over any surfaces bearing old paint. Old black stenciling is very durable, and it's not likely you will rub it off. Most pin striping is also pretty durable. I've seen old metal machinery that was terribly rusted on the surface (all paint gone), but incredibly the stenciling and striping could still faintly be seen! Follow the mild soap scrub with damp cloths, and then towel dry everything immediately, particularly if you're working on wood. Start on a portion of the equipment that would be out of sight, and if you see any paint coming off on your cloth as you wipe, stop and just try to clean with a drycloth and perhaps Endust. If the surface is greasy, you may need more than soap. Try a little paint thinner (mineral spirits) on a cloth, and again start with an obscure location. Generally, a little water won't hurt wood if it is not allowed to soak in or stay on too long. After the cleaning, while the surfaces are still damp, you will be able to see the striping and lettering more plainly.They will fade as the water dries, so you may want to copy what you see, particularly if you have model numbers, patent dates, and the like. Hope this is of some help. Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

This is a difficult subject. The actual horsepower of a turbine depended on several characteristics and parameters, including an operating coefficient that was unique to every turbine manufacturer (andthere were more than 100 such builders in the nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries). This coefficient had to be determined experimentally by the manufacturer, or, preferably, by an unbiased testing facility (such as the Holyoke, MA, testing flume). Once it was known, the manufacturer usually developed tables for their turbines of various sizes, showing their performances under different heads. Some ofthese tables survive, notably those for the Leffel turbines. The reason these tables are all different is that manufacturers had to skirt around patent issues by changing slightly the design of their own turbine. As aresult, there were many distinct gating systems, gate configurations,runner types, bearings, etc., etc. These all influenced the operating efficiency of the turbine, which was at best around 82%.If you know the make of your turbine, that would be helpful. Otherwisewe can only make an educated guess at the horsepower. Or if you can senda photo, we might recognize it. Also, as you are aware, the runner diameter has to be known (not the diameter of the turbine casing). These were often cast into the top plate. There might be a big "16," for example, meaning a 16-inch runner. In addition, the operating head hasto be known. This is roughly the difference between the level of water when the penstock is filled, and the level of the creek below the dam,where the tail water discharges.Best Regards, John Lovett

Anyway, the early mills had essentially no dust collection systems. Oh, there were probably a few enterprising millers who figured a way to draft dust out of the building. And the early smutters (later scourers)that polished wheat (and some corn cleaners) had fans with exhaust pipes that blew the light chaff out of the building. Later, large dust collectors that looked like inverted cones were used in connection with cleaners, scourers, and some sifters. Early wooden bladed fans were also used. Prior to the 1880s, when roller milling of flour came into vogue, virtually all grain was stone ground. White flour could only be produced by regrinding and passing the flour through several sifting (bolting)processes. Most of the flour in those days was whole wheat. On horizontal millstones, which today are rarely run over 150 rpm, there is little dust created in milling whole wheat flour, even less with corn. More dust is actually created in the bolting process, but most is confined to the bolting apparatus, unless an open sifter is being used. After the roller process for flour began to be installed in most commercial mills, exotic looking dust collectors were manufactured. These were sometimes large drums with louvers that entrapped the dust, and could be later shaken out. I suppose it would help if I knew the period to which you are interpreting your mill. It's been a long time since I was there, so the memory is vague. Hope this is of some help. If I can help you further, please email me directly and I'll see what I can do. Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill ()

Hello, Dave, My suggestion regarding the bearings on your water wheel is to first jack the wheel axle slightly above the bearings. Check to see how much clearance there is (i.e., wear) between the axle and bearing boxes all the way around. If you have at least 1/4-inch wear around the bearing, you can pour babbitt bearings in place without lifting the axle out. Take off the bearing caps (if there are any), steam clean thoroughly the bearings and axle (where it meets the bearings), dry it out thoroughly, then find someone there who knows how to pour a babbitt bearing. Use only tin-based (not lead-based) babbitt. It is much stronger and will hold up to the weight of the wheel. Be sure to provide for oil holes in the bearing caps, and keep them oiled frequently. If the wear is not sufficient to pour the babbitt, you will still have to jack the wheel axle enough to pull out the old bearings, if possible. Another alternative would be (again, if possible) to place new bearings on the axle in positions next to the old bearings, and just leave the old ones in place. If the axle is heavily pitted or worn in these places, it may again require babbitt bearings, as modern roller or ball bearings won't usually mate properly to a worn shaft. There are ways, however, to turn down the diameter of a shaft in place, if you can find a machinist with the proper tools. Still another alternative: If you want to place another wheel near the old one, I have a friend in North Carolina who designs and fabricates these. They are relatively inexpensive (compared to restoring your old one), look good, and operate efficiently on modern bearings. They are all steel, so there is no worry about rotting wood. (See www.waterwheelfactory.com for some examples.) In your case, I would investigate the amount of power your wheel could possibly produce to turn equipment or a generator. It can't do much as far as kilowatt output. The speed will also have to be stepped up considerably. A water turbine would be much more efficient for this type of application, but it doesn't have the visual appeal of a water wheel. Regarding wood, if you go back with this for the buckets, elm is good, but I am not familiar with what's available in England. White oak was traditionally used in the U.S., if it could stay wet most of the time. I would not mess with some exotic wood, as it will probably be way too expensive and of unknown durability. Hope this helps. Best of luck, John Lovett

Hi Jenny, Yes you can calculate the diameter of the water wheel having the dimensions of the wheel pit and evidence of where the bearings and/or where the wheel shaft entered the building. If this all is available this should be a simple task. Please factor in space under the wheel for tail water exit for an overshot wheel and in the case of an undershot/breastshot wheel the addition of an wooden apron under the wheel to help water exit and help with efficiency. Depending on the width of the wheel and the amount of water used during operation this distance could be upwards of 12 inches or more between the bottom of the wheel and the top of the tailwater. Good luck in your research and I hope I was of some help. Rob

Hello, Dave, If you would like to send photos, please send them to the following email address: john.lovett@quantitech.com. Or if you prefer mailing them, my address is 134 Falls Mill Road, Belvidere, TN 37306. Back to the babbitt metal business: Babbitt, when poured into a bearing box, will mold itself to the contours of a worn shaft. However, if the shaft is out of round, the bearing will not work, causing the axle and wheel to pitch and wobble, thereby wearing out the bearing in a short time. If it is possible to remove your axle completely, the best approach would be to take it to a machine shop having a very long bed lathe and have them turn down the shaft at the bearing locations to "true it up" round. If they take enough off to allow a ¼-inch babbitt liner to be poured around the shaft, this will serve as a superior bearing for many years if properly lubricated. Of course, after the axle is machined round, you could just put modern pillow block ball bearings on it. It sounds as if the only workable option for you is to remove the axle and have it machined. Once the axle is out, you will have easier access to the bearing locations for replacement. Best Regards, John Lovett

Hello Clyde, Contact Phil Robertson Phone-812-358-2899. He has a broad experience in restoring roller mills and is an authority on American Roller Mills. He would be happy to help. Rob

Yes, you are correct. It is called an elevator belt.

A tub wheel is so-called because it is a horizontal water wheel with curved blade which revolves in a wooden or masonry hoop or tub enclosure, much like a millstone hoop. These developed in Europe prior to 1750 and were the forerunners of the modern water turbines. Now to the Smokies. The term "tub mill" has traditionally been connected to small nineteenth-century American mills (such as those two in the Smokies) which utilized a wooden horizontal wheel to typically power one set of millstones. These wheels were crudely made, often from a single piece of wood when one of sufficient diameter was available, by employing hand augers and axes. Blades were cut so that a single jet of water could be directed onto the top of the wheel. They operated much like a child's pinwheel, except on water velocity (or percussion) and not wind. They were normally less than 30% efficient, but if sufficient head and volume of water could be developed, they would perform work. Usually a horizontal shaft connected the wheel directly to the millstones, so they would turn a small set (say 36-inch diameter) about 125 revolutions per minute. Some quickly constructed, very crude tub wheels didn't even have a tub, and if I remember correctly, at least one of those in the Smokies is of that design. Thus it is not a true tub wheel, but would be called that anyway. The purpose of the tub was to keep the water from overshooting the wheel and help direct it to the vanes. Without the tub the water will splatter all over as it strikes the wheel. Hope this will help. John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

In order to judge the potential kilowatts you could produce at your site, you need to know the head of water and the approximate flow rate during dry conditions. The size of water wheel you propose would under ideal circumstances generate about 4 horsepower, so could only produce a maximum of around 2.5 kilowatts. To produce 10 kilowatts, the wheel would need to be on the order of 16' diameter by 4' wide, if the flow of water will be sufficient for such a wheel. Then when you start gearing up the speed to the generator, you will lose some more horsepower. Our water wheel is 32 feet in diameter and 4 feet wide, and it was rated originally at about 32 brake horsepower. Its maximum speed is about 3-1/2 rpm. A wheel of the size you are planning would turn somewhat faster, but you will still need to step up the speed to the generator at least, I would say, 12 times, depending on the rated generator speed (there are some which turn relatively slowly). Also, are you planning to employ a stand-alone AC or DC generator, or over speed an induction motor while connected to the utility grid? The easiest way to step up the speed would be to mount a large flat or V-belt pulley to the water wheel shaft, belting it to a much smaller pulley on a countershaft. Then belt from another large pulley on the countershaft to the generator. If the water wheel pulley is 4 feet in diameter and the countershaft pulley it drives is 1 foot, that is of course a 4:1 speed increase. If you then go from a 3 foot pulley on the countershaft to a 1 foot on the generator, you get a 3:1, so the net result is that the generator runs 12 times the speed of the water wheel. Hope this is of some help. Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

You can generate some heat from friction sources, no doubt about it. However, most water wheels are not the most powerful of engines, so any heavy load imposed by a significant friction source will slow them appreciably (or can even stop them). Also, the power transmission system, which may be gears or belting, will be placed under severe strain. We operate a 32 by 4 foot overshot water wheel, and it is one of the largest and most powerful wheels left in operation in the U.S. However, it is only rated about 32 brake horsepower. When we tighten up our millstones, the wheel will slow down markedly, so we have to compensate with more water. When the wheel is idling slowly, I can put pressure with my hand on one of the big pulleys on the main line shaft and stop the wheel completely. If you are looking for an inexpensive way to go, I would just buy a used induction motor (just a standard off-the-shelf motor - doesn't have to be very big unless you are heating a large area). Gear it up from the water wheel with belts and pulleys or gears so the speed will be about 4% over the motor's rated speed. Then it will become a generator as long as you can keep the speed steady and are able to connect it into the main public power grid, which is necessary to provide the exciter (otherwise, you would require a stand-alone generator, which would be more expensive). Run the current directly to a heater coil. This is simple and safer than a friction source, which has an inherent fire danger. Any knowledgeable electrician should be able to rig it up. However, it may require some switch gear and safety devices. Hope this is an acceptable answer. Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

First, if these wooden gears are simply to be placed on display indoors, I would just keep them rubbed with linseed oil once or twice a year. I would not keep them outside. If they are to be operated, you will really have to be careful.Very old wooden gears are usually not in an operable condition and will normally disintegrate if run at milling speeds. They should be well greased with Crisco if in operation. I hope this answers your Question.Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

I would suggest you contact and engage the services of a millwright. Advertising in Old Mill News are several reputable millwrights, complete with contact information.

Hello, Chuck, Based on all my available information, Leffel never made a 52-inch turbine. If yours was as early as you believe, I couldn’t rule that size out completely. However, they did manufacture a 50-inch turbine, so the following measurements are based on that runner diameter. The overall width of the turbine housing was 69 inches, and the draft tube at maximum opening was 55 inches. The turbine could have operated in an open penstock (although I doubt it), or been furnished in its own pressure case, to which a large pipe was connected (the latter being the most common situation for a horizontal turbine, at least in later years). The lower end of the elbow draft tube had to be submerged at all times in at least two inches of water to provide a hydraulic seal for the turbine to operate efficiently. Therefore the tailwater level had to come up slightly above the bottom of the draft tube. The draft tube itself could be made any length, so the minimum clearance between floor of penstock on which the turbine rested and the turbine itself would be based on the size of the pressure case, if used. This size I have no information on. Horizontally mounted turbines were not uncommon, and were manufactured by most of the major turbine builders. They seemed to operate as well as a vertically mounted unit, and had the advantage of taking belt power directly from the horizontal shaft without the use of bevel gearing. Of course the turbine would have to operate in a pressure case, with the drive shaft protruding through a sealed bearing, to avoid the pulley and belt having to run submerged, which would not work. Incidentally, your turbine, at a 36-foot head, would have generated about 1,000 horsepower at 200 revolutions per minute, and used almost 20,000 cubic feet per minute of water (or about 154,000 gallons per minute), if available at the site. John Lovett, Falls Mill

Hi Andy, I am not familiar with waterproof lubricants but you could easily find info by contacting a sales rep from any major oil company like Exxon or Chevron or the like. Try the web for contact info. As for an enviromentally friendly solution you may try natural lubricants like tallow and bees wax. Keep in mind these may need to be applied more frequently than petroleum based products. I soften bees wax with turpentine then add sheeps tallow in a 50/50 ratio. Any tallow will work but I prefer to use sheeps tallow as it holds up well and rodents don't seem to bother it. Good luck to you. Rob

Mechanical, or working, efficiency, is simply the ratio of the power a water wheel can deliver to the power of the water supplied to it. This can never be 100% due to friction and other losses. In the days of water wheel design and construction, it was customary to measure flow and head of water in the stream that was to supply the wheel in order to judge an appropriate size for the wheel, and estimate the expected horsepower. Stream flow was measured by installing a weir in a small creek, or by a float method in a larger one. Head, or total drop of water available, was measured with a surveyor's level or transit. The full horsepower of the stream could then be calculated by multiplying the number of cubic feet of water flowing per minute by the head in feet, then multiplying by the weight in pounds of one cubic foot of water (62.33), then dividing this product by 33,000. Usually only a portion of this water was actually delivered to the wheel, through a race or flume, so sometimes a percentage was multiplied by the horsepower result based on the estimated amount of water to be taken for driving the water wheel. Particularly in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, several methods were developed for applying loads to water wheels to test their efficiencies under simulated operating conditions. One of the most common devices so used was the Pony brake. It applied a load to either the water wheel's main axle or a countershaft and provided a result which could be compared to the theoretical horsepower of the stream. By dividing the stream horsepower into the working horsepower of the wheel (as measured by the loading device), an efficiency value was thus obtained. Without going into the theory and equations for energy, suffice it to say that the undershot wheel is driven by the velocity of water striking its paddles or blades, with the head of water having little bearing on its power output. Its efficiency is therefore much lower than an overshot wheel, which acts under the weight of water in its buckets (like a lever), and therefore benefits from the head as well as quantity of water. The longer the overshot wheel can hold the water before dumping, the greater the lever effect. Prior to the Civil War, almost all water wheels were wooden. Buckets, which held the water to near the bottom of the wheel, were difficult to build. Therefore, the efficiencies of the old wooden overshot wheels were usually around 50-65% at most. After Fitz and other companies began building metal wheels, efficiencies improved due to better bucket design and lower-friction bearings. The metal wheels were also lighter than their oak counterparts, and ran smoother. Fitz claimed efficiencies as high as 95%, based on university tests, but I'm sure this was more advertising hype than reality. When a mill owner bought a Fitz wheel and began powering his equipment, my guess would be the true efficiency was probably closer to 85% in the ideal situation. This was about comparable to the water turbines of the era. If a decision was to be made between an undershot or overshot water wheel for a particular site, the horsepower requirements for the shafting and machinery to be driven were ascertained (most manufacturers supplied this information). The stream horsepower could then be multiplied by an appropriate efficiency factor for either wheel design. If wood was to be the building material, this factor should be a maximum of about 35% for undershot wheels and 65% for overshot. The result could be compared to the machinery requirements to determine which design to choose. For example, assume stream horsepower was 50, and machinery required 25 horsepower. Then an efficiency of 50% could be tolerated from the water wheel. This would indicate an overshot wheel. Then you get into bucket design, optimum number of buckets, width of the wheel to accommodate a given flow of water, etc., etc. You might want to read Terry Reynold's book entitled Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. SPOOM sells reproductions of some old Fitz bulletins, too, which touch on some of this. Oliver Evans' book is most interesting also, but uses archaic terminology. Hope this is some help. John Lovett, Falls Mill & Country Store, Belvidere, TN

My area of expertise is water power, so I can only provide some general information about windmill power. The highest efficiency possible from a windmill or wind generator is said to be 59%. Efficiency is simply a ratio of the energy output to the energy input. Friction from the wind traveling across the blades, as well as from the bearings, the transmission devices that carry the motion of the blades to the operating equipment (such as generators, water pumps), etc., cuts the efficiency. Most well-designed windmills operate around 50% efficient. The output of a typical windmill (in watts) is approximately equal to the product of the square of the rotor or propeller radius and the square of the wind velocity. The more blades you add, the less the rotational speed of the windmill, as a general rule. The higher speed wind generators, such as those along the California coast, usually have only two or three blades. The old windmills that were used to grind grain typically had four blades, and rotated rather slowly because the blades were so large and heavy, and there was such a drag due to the power requirements of turning a heavy set of millstones. I know this may not be adequate information. What I would suggest is that you visit your local library and search for a publication on alternative energy sources. Many of these were published during the artificially created oil crisis of the early 1970's. There was much windmill data printed at that time. Also, you may want to contact the editors of Mother Earth News (I'm sure they have a Web site). They have published in past issues information on wind power. Hope this helps. Good luck! Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill, Belvidere, TN

Two mustard mills still producing are the Colman Mustard Plant in Norwich, England (modern), and a restored windmill operated by the Zaanse Schans Foundation on the River Zaan in the Netherlands (stone grinding).JLovett I know there is a big French's mustard plant near Springfield, Missouri which is in the southwest part of the state. I do not know if they actually grind the seed there but I do know. J Smoot Another Mustard Mill is Raye's Mustard Mill in Eastport, ME, which is the only pure stone ground mustard mill in North America. Check out their site at "Raye's Mustaed Mill". They have 4 run of stones and have been grinding mustard since the early 1900s, when the mustard was used as a dressing inside the cans of sardines being shipped back home by Portuguese fishermen, who plied the waters off the Maine Coast. Dave Haines

Fulling is the process of making fibers, such as wool, thicker by the use of moister, heat and pressing. A fulling mill is where this manufacturing would have taken place. Kevin Johnson

Hello, Roger! It is a rare gate that can't leak a little water. However, a well-designed steel gate in good condition should be about the most leak-proof. You might examine yours to see if there are corroded area sat the bottom or on the sides of the gate or the flume. It sounds like you have what was called a fore bay. I am guessing that your water wheel is a Fitz with a manufactured fore bay. Fitz designed their wheels with holes in each bucket, so that if the fore bay leaked a little, the waterwould drain through the buckets without keeping the wheel in motion. This also helped the wheel drain when the water was let out of the flume. It was also thought that the holes relieved air pockets as the buckets filled, and they helped to get the wheel started as well. I don't know what your flume looks like (wooden, pipe, or ???), but if it is convenient, you need to install a spillway and plug near the fore bay. This allows you to pull out a plug (wooden is the easiest to make) and let the water spill out of the flume. Then you don't have to close the headgate at the dam. We have this arrangement, and it is a good emergency stop for the wheel. However, it has to be designed to relieve all the water coming down the flume. The rack and pinion gate control normally had a ratchet and pawl to hold the gate in position. The ratchet was attached to the gate shaft, and the pawl could be manually pulled off the ratchet to release the gate. Yes, most water wheel gates were controlled manually. We have to adjust our gate for varying loads. However, the most sophisticated arrangement was a governor that opened and closed the gate with speed changes. These were more commonly found on water turbines and in electrical generating facilities. I would guess your wheel was designed to turn around 6 to 8 rpm. Horizontal millstones turn around 125 to 160 rpm depending on the diameter, so you would need a considerable step-up in speed. The age-old trash rack design consisted of wooden slats set about3/4-inch apart and inclined upstream. No horizontal cross pieces were used so that a rake could remove debris each morning from the bottom of the rack to the top. Now you can make them of rebar or similar materials. Some debris will still pass through, but you don't want the slats too close together, or they will quickly clog. Hope this helps. I will gladly try to answer any other questions you may have. Good luck on the project. Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill

Falls Mill is presently covered by Indiana Insurance Company. We have liability, product liability, fire, theft, etc. Our Workers Comp is under a different provider (CNA). We tried Millers Mutual, but we do so many non-mill related things, they didn't want to cover us. In truth, nobody wants to cover an old mill, except for an exorbitant premium. We have a local independent agent who shops ours every year. I would suggest the same procedure. Best of Luck!!! John Lovett, Falls Mill

Stephen, your comments are correct. French buhrs are only found at the quarries in small pieces, rarely anything large enough to make a large millstone. I have only encountered several large, one piece, French Buhrstones in many years, and only one, 48 inch diameter pair, complete and ready for work. I agree, French buhrs did a very good job grinding winter wheat (higher moisture content) pealing the bran off in large flakes enabling the bolters to separate the whole wheat flour into good quality white flour. Winter wheats were used for bread and pastry flours for many many years. It was only until the shift in favour to the hard spring wheats during the mid 19th century, used in bread flours (higher in gluton, lower moisture content), that spelled the demise of the millstone. Even the "new process" grinding (gradual reduction) adopted in the 1860's couldn't effectively separate the then smaller granulated bran in the mills bolters to produce a truely white flour. Thanks for your comments. Rob Grassi

Thanks for the info, I'll pass it along. Rob

Hello, Tom, Money is always the problem in mill restoration. The costs of materials and labor have escalated so much in past years as to put most significant restoration projects out of reach. SPOOM is primarily an organization of enthusiasts, and doesn’t have much money to offer. My advice would be to first contact Ben Hassett, an historic millwright who advertises in Old Mill News. His contact information is (804) 363-1606 or email contact2005@hassettmillwrights.com. Ben has had experience with windmill restoration and could tell you where other projects have received their funding. If you decide to pursue private foundations, the sponsoring organization usually has to be 501 (c) (3) non-profit. This could be the local historical society if they qualify. You might be able to cut down considerably on the costs if you retain Ben or someone similar as a consultant/advisor, and see if local contractors or volunteers could donate some of the work and materials. Sometimes this works if you can find skilled help. It can also serve as matching in-kind funds for grants. You will want to check with the state of Illinois to see if there are any funds for historic preservation or community development/enhancement available for this type of project. Start with the state preservation office, but don’t overlook the Transportation Department, Community Development agencies, etc. Sometimes they have “hidden” money that can be used for this type of work. If funds are very limited, I would recommend stabilization work first, to keep the structure from collapsing. Later you can concentrate on the sails, machinery, and interior when more money becomes available. To get some seed money, you could establish a “Friends of Fischer Windmill” and request membership donations of, say, $25 to $100, maybe $500 for corporate. And then there’s always the money-making event, like music shows, engine shows, crafts shows, etc. Or you could request the nearest old engine/tractor club to tack on an extra $1 to their annual show admission and earmark it for the Fischer Windmill fund. These are a few suggestions. I’m sure someone more qualified in fund raising could help more. Best of luck, John Lovett, Falls Mill

Hi, The best person to talk to on the subject is Phil Robertson. He gave SPOOMers a lesson on sack tying at a SPOOM Conference several years ago. May I suggest you call and talk to him directly at 812/358-2899. Rob

I put your question to the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, the agency that currently governs "water rights" through water use permits and flood plane regulation. According to the DNR official I spoke to, the oldest state law on the books in IA regarding Mill dams dates to the 1920's. At the time this law was passed water rights and use issues were put before what was known as the "Executive Council" formed from elected represenatives in the State. Neither the DNR nor the Executive Council were in existence in the 1866-1869 timeframe referenced in your question. Water rights issues in that time frame in IA were likely governed by property ownership, agreements with neighboring land owners and Common Law. It may pay to research court documents from that time period to find rulings by the local court on any disputes regarding the Mill and water rights. This may give you more definitive proof that water rights issues were handled amongst neighbors and local courts and not by any organized committee or governing agency.

Finding funds to help restore old mills can prove difficult. Although mills were an important part of local communities it is a challenge to get governments to allocate funds to preserve mills. If you have any community service groups in your area, Rotary, Kiwanis, Lions Clubs, etc. you may try to contact those members to solicit funds. Also check with area foundations who may have money set aside for community historic preservation projects. SPOOM has a grant program but the awards are generally in the $1000-$3000 range. Check also with your state and local tourism departments to see if they have any recommendations. State museum associations can sometimes offer insight on fundraising and grant writing techniques. Often times they sponsor workshops where they help you with specific grant writing projects. Another suggestion is to find a local sponsor, a successful business person who may have family ties to the mill and see if they might help with specific projects. Perhaps a construction firm to sponsor rebuilding, an electrical contractor to sponsor the wiring, a design firm to help with displays and exhibits, etc. When you are working on a shoestring you have to look at all possible ways of getting things to come together. In our experience you are more likely to find donors at the $100 level than at $5,000. Get together a number of interested "friends of the mill" have a work day, put up a sign board with estimated costs of specific projects, send a copy to area newspapers and television stations and try to drum up some grass roots support. Maybe you'll be lucky and find that one person who really wants to help and has the funds to do just that. Don't forget to make sure you have liability insurance before getting anyone on the property to work!

I've tried many things including sonic, glues, sprays, etc. None were satisfactory. Professional pest management is the only way to go. When asking for advice you should name your pests: roaches, weevils, beetles, moths, birds, raccoons, squirrels, rats, mice, etc. Phil Robertson, Brownstown IN.

This is actually the type of stone (like granite or limestone) that was quarried near Paris for use as millstones. These stones are almost always segmented, cemented, and banded together. I believe the main reason they were built in pieces was the difficulty in loading and unloading monolithic stones from ships. I've heard other opinions that the veins in the quarries were such that large stones were not able to be removed, but this sounds far-fetched. Anyway, the French buhr has a distinctive pock-marked appearance, which millers believed helped it stay sharp. It is certainly true that French buhr was the hardest rock ever used for millstones, based on the Rockwell scale (granite is a bit softer). These stones are the devil to re-sharpen, and they play havoc with my mill picks. However, once re-faced, they retain their grinding ability for a long time if not allowed to rub. The stone you have is not unusual or necessarily very old. Several manufacturers of stone buhr mills, such as Nordyke and Marmon (one of the most famous) and Straub, used French buhr in their mills well into the 1900's. Allis-Chalmers bought out Nordyke and Marmon in 1926 and continued to manufacture a line of stone buhr mills. R.D. Cole Company of Newnan, GA, built stone buhr mills until the 1950's, but they used Esopus granite quarried in New York. The Meadows Mill Company of North Wilkesboro, NC, is the only U.S. manufacturer of stone buhr mills today, and they use Balfour pink granite from quarries in North Carolina. I have heard that the French quarries have been inactive for many years. Almost all millstones were banded as yours. In the case of French buhrs, this offered a measure of support since they were segmented. However, in most cases the bands were put on at the quarries to help keep the stones from splitting when the center eye was cut. The stone you have is a runner, or upper stone. The corn or wheat fed through the center hole to the bedstone. The iron device mortised into the stone is the rynd or yoke. It should have a little cup in the center, viewed from the grinding or furrowed side of the stone. This is the cocks-eye, which sat on the tip of the millstone shaft and took the weight of the stone. This allowed the stone to float as it turned, but it still had to be perfectly balanced. The holes in each side of your stone were for lifting bails. The bail pins were inserted into the holes, and the runner was lifted off the bedstone with a crank, worm screw, and pivoting crane for sharpening. I've sweated through this harrowing operation many times. The stone has to be rotated over while hanging in the bails to expose its face for dressing. 36 inches was a standard diameter for manufactured millstones, but it was about the smallest diameter sold, except for the little portable mills of Straub and a few others. Almost all millstones of this type were plastered on the top surface. There are at least three reasons for this. One was that the stone was usually not finished on the top side, since this was very laborious. By plastering over the rough top, the stone could be made smooth and attractive. A second reason was that holes could be easily gouged out of the plaster around the rim to pour in lead or add weights where needed to balance the stone, like a wheel on a car. Some millstones had balance pots with adjustable weights built in. A third reason was that the plaster could be trued up on top to the extent that a pencil, when held fixed in slight contact with the top of the stone, would mark the light or high side and miss the low or heavy side when the stone was turned on its shaft. This aided in balancing, by showing where to put the weights. I hope this information will be of some help to you. If you have further questions, don't hesitate to ask. Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill & Country Store, Belvidere, TN

The term grist refers to any grain that a farmer would bring to a mill for grinding. Sometimes said to be as much grain as could be carried to the mill at one time. So it could be said that a grist mill would usually grind all grains. A flour mill would generally just grind wheat or some other small grain into flour. I hope this helps clarify the terms for you. Kevin Johnson Basically grist is a raw material while flour is a finished product. In his DICTIONARY OF MILLING TERMS AND EQUIPMENT John Wingfield defines grist as (1) grain or quantity of grain for grinding and (2) ground grain. Others use the term batch. The point is that a grist can be any quantity of grain. Historically it meant the quantity of grain the farmer took to the mill and was commonly envisioned in terms of perhaps one to ten bushels. Flour, in our context, is a fine meal produced by milling grain, especially wheat. Technically there are corn flour, rye flour, oat flour, etc. However, when the term is used in the vernacular of old mills it means wheat flour. Phil Robertson, Consultant, Brownstown IN.

This was a small machine with a conical drum inside, andbrushes in the drum. It was usually the last machine in a complex systemof flour milling, using rollers rather than stones. We still use one inour mill, although for bran separation rather than dusting. The purpose of the machine was to remove the last vestiges of flour stuck to the bran (hulls of the wheat berry) and shorts (formerly a feed material with less crude fiber than bran), which were the last separations in abolter, such as a hexagonal reel. The drum was usually clothed with afine screen on the feed end, and a coarser screen toward the tail. As the bran and shorts were fed into the machine, the drum rotated very slowly, while the brushes inside spun faster. They agitated the material, and their brushing action against the drum screens dislodged the flour particles, which fell through the fine screen. The coarser particles, sometimes called "ships," fell through the coarser screen, while the bran tailed out the end of the drum. Thus three separations could be made. Back in those days, the bran was considered indigestible to humans, so it was sold for animal feed or discharged into the tail race of the mill. Now it's "valuable fiber." How times change!! Hope this helps. Best Regards, John Lovett, Owner, Falls Mill & CountryStore

The wheat steamers were used to "temper" the wheat prior to milling. The wheat encountered the moisture from the steamer as it was moving toward the milling process, usually on roller mills. This toughened the bran and mellowed the floury part of the wheat berry. This was a common practice, still in use today. The process was also known as "conditioning" the wheat. Hope this helps. Best Regards, John Lovett, Falls Mill

Yes, both millstones are "grooved" or more properly termed dressed with a millstone dress pattern. Both millstones are dressed identical and when in operation the dress patterns work across each other very aggressively to grind the grain into flour (or meal). In most cases the top stone is the runner or driven and the bottom stone is the bedstone or stationary millstone. Yes the grain is fed into the "hole" or eye of the top millstone to be ground. For more detailed info there are several very good books that cover this topic available at the SPOOM Bookstore. One I highly recommend is Practical Milling by Dedrick.

Yes Roger, there is. You can use a food grade grease (made from vegetable oils). It is available in tubes for use in a grease gun and in standard containers.

There is a water wheel-powered up and down saw mill at Spring Mill State Park near Mitchell, Indiana. What's even more interesting is the fact that the return carriage is powered by a flutter wheel. The office phone number is 812/849-4129. -Phil Robertson, Consultant, 1015 E. North Shore Drive, Brownstown IN 47220.

Hello Ric, John asked me to address your questions since I am at the mill full time and work with the groups and individual visitors on a daily basis. At Falls Mill in Belvidere, Tennessee we offer self-guided tours for individuals and guided tours for groups with advance notice. Visitors start with an introductory video that gives a brief history of the mill and shows how the milling is done it lasts about 5 minutes. The video includes historic photographs as well as live action shots of milling and the waterwheel in action. Our mill began life as a textile factory producing yarns and cloth, then it was used as part of a cotton gin complex and then as a woodworking shop. We have tried to develop displays on all aspects of the mill's history. Today we grind about 20,000 pounds of grain per month on 2 sets of millstones. We sell to visitors here and mail order to individuals and restaurants across the US. All of the first floor and part of the second floor are open to the public. On the first floor the the moving belts and pulleys are overhead or protected by cages or roped off. Signs are placed so they keep visitors from reaching up to touch moving pulleys and we keep close watch on children going through the mill. Through windows on the second floor you may view the grain cleaners, sifters and storage bins. The weaving exhibit room and the country store are located on the 2nd floor. When groups make advance reservations we take them on a guided tour of the mill and grounds. We begin at the dam and upper falls and explain how the water is diverted through the mill race to the wheel. While inside we give an overview of the history and explain how the power is transmitted by the belts and pulleys, view a pair of millstones, open to show the furrouws in the face of the stones, on top of these we have an ear of dried corn on the cob and glass jars showing the different grains we mill with layers of whole grain and milled flour or meal or grits. Then we proceed to the elevators explaining how grain is conveyed to the cleaners and storage bins on the second floor. We then walk to where the corn is being ground. Next we continue to the back porch overlooking the waterwheel. Once back in the building we show the wooden patterns for the gears for the waterwheel. Other demonstrations include our 100 year old printing press where we print the recipes and lables on the flour and meal bags and a rare dog powered butter churn, always a hit with the children. On the second floor we demonstrate hand spinning and weaving and explain about the difficult working conditions in early textile mills. In the store we play the 1907 Victor Phonograph and the 1929 Player Piano. The guided tour ends in the store, after shopping visitors are encouraged to walk the grounds below the mill to see the waterwheel from the creek level. Other interpretive exhibits might include dispalys of items made from the milled product, i.e. cereals, bread, muffins, chips, grits, cookies, etc... Since mills were often social centers you can also include this in your interpretive exhibits. Many communities grew up around the local mill. We have received the Boston Mill Society newsletter for some time and commend the efforts of the group and the State for taking on such a worthwhile project. I hope the information above will be helpful to your planning. If I can answer any specific questions please let me know. Jane Lovett Falls Mill

Hello Ric, We haven't done any formal statistical analysis of visitors, try Jack Smoot or Harold Rapp to see if their parks keep up with that type of data. Since both are government run establishments they are more likely to have that information in writing.. I can offer you information based on the past 22 years we have owned Falls Mill. We are open for tours 6 days per week from 9-4 weekdays and Saturday and Sunday from 12:30-4. We average about 15,000 touring the mill each year. We have at least another 5,000 or so who just come to shop. Most of the visitors are middle to upper middle class families with young children and seniors and retired travelers. Most are well educated. Group traffic is about 65 percent school children from within a 50 mile radius and 35 percent senior church groups and travel clubs living within 150 miles. All groups make arrangements in advance so that they receive a guided tour. The busiest months for groups are September, October and early November for schools and April and May for senior citizens. The busiest month for individuals and families is July. In early July you get far more middle to lower middle income groups as many factories are closed for vacations during this period. In October we have at least two groups scheduled each day. Our registration book asks their name, address and "how did you learn about Falls Mill?" Road signs are #1, followed by friends, word of mouth, television shows, brochures, guide books or magazine articles. Many like to visit old mills because they are generally located in quiet country settings, near water, and have an interesting history to relate and make great pictures. Hope this is helpful. Jane Lovett Falls Mill

Thank you for your inquiry. I know of two Mills, one in Virginia and one in North Carolina that have had similar issues with dams that have been damaged by storms. Both have been repaired and put back into operation within the past 8-10 years. The Burwell-Morgan Mill is located in Millwood, VA, the best person to contact there who has a long history with the mill is Joe Guenther, his email is joeguenther@earthlink.net Another Mill located in Wake Co. North Carolina is Yates Mill. There dam required substantial rebuilding. The person to contact whom is most familiar with the work to the dam is William Robins, his phone number is (919)834-9597. Most "pump" or recirculating water systems used to demonstrate Mills that I've seen serve waterwheels. Of these systems in use, I believe the range of water usage is from 1,100 to 2,300gpm (for vertical, overshot waterwheels). Given the large volume of water required to power turbines, a pump type system may not serve you too well..........much of this, of course depends on the site, which I have not seen or visited. In my opinion, if the damage to the dam is limited to 20%, your best and most successful option may be to pursue getting the dam repaired to power the Mill by water. A good resource for more information on ram pumps is: www.animatedsoftware.com/pumpglos/ram_pump.htm Hope this information is useful in getting you started...............................Ben

Hello, Hillary, You have chosen a very interesting topic for research. I know of no textile factories with their original bells, but ours has a replacement bell we still use for visitor entertainment. As you know, there are almost no active nineteeth/early twentieth century textile factories left in America. Although many old buildings remain, they have undergone alternative use for the most part. The earliest textile plant in Alabama (near Huntsville) was called the Bell Factory, after the bell it used to signal workers. It is completely gone now. Our mill, built in 1873, was a cotton and woolen factory. This ceased about 1906. We still operate by water power, but use the mill for grain production. However, I am restoring a complete collection of nineteenth century woolen machinery to demonstrate in our mill someday (I hope). I would say it is possible that you might locate an original bell somewhere. I would recommend contacting my friend Clare Sheridan, the librarian and archivist at the American Textile History Museum in Lowell, MA. She might be able to help you. Her number is (978) 441-0400 ext. 228. The museum is going through bad financial times right now, so is temporarily closed. However, you may be able to reach Clare. If I can help you further, please contact me directly at fallsmill@tnco.net. Good luck! John Lovett, Falls Mill

When Mr. Harvengt talks of "...used when farmers came in with their grain..." and later says "..since they don't have one handle for hanging..." I believe that he is referring to a grain quality parameter called test weight per bushel. Not all test weight buckets (cups) have "one handle for hanging." There are grain grading scales so calibrated as to show test weight when the contents of a pint cup, or quart cup, or half bushel cup (no handles at all) are poured into the scale pan. I do not believe that this set was for "when farmers came in with their grain." Noting that Collinsville is close to the Mississippi River makes me wonder if the city had a board of trade or some other agency concerned with trade, especially trade on the river or a large grain elevator. For instance, a USDA Grain Inspection Service facility could have used the pint or the quart or the half bushel cup to measure test weights of samples of grain from river barge shipments, rail shipments, or truck shipments. Perhaps other small, light seeds, grass seed, hay seed, flax seed, or vegetable seed (such as tomato seed in connection with Brooks Foods) were traded in the area or shipped via the river. Are there quality standards for these seeds such as 125 grams per peck or some such value? Perhaps the facility also performed quality tests for these commodities. Finally, there is the possibility of government waste. E.g they needed only a pint cup but some bureaucrat bought the whole set. Age? 1915 t0 1980--just a wild guess. Phil Robertson, Milling consultant 1015 E North Shore Drive, Brownstown IN 47220 812/358-2899